BACKGROUND

The Ancestors of American Indians, including the Maya, came to the new lands of the Western Hemisphere from northeastern Asia. Much like the modern tribal peoples encountered during Russian expansion into Siberia, the ancestors of American Indians followed game and edible plants on foot as they came into season. These people did not come to the American continents as explorers, nor does recent evidence of much earlier proto-eurasian immigrants indicate any significant non-asian component to the genetic stock of Precolumbian North American Indians generally.

During the great Ice Ages it is postulated that small tribal bands followed the seasonal migrations of herds of enormous mammals who roamed freely across Beringea's fertile plains. Others followed the seashore, to better exploit both land and sea. When Earth's climate began to warm again, the vast sheets of glacial ice gradually melted, raising sea levels, reuniting the waters and stranding Siberian peoples on the shores of a rehydrated Bering Strait. These former Siberian peoples, who now find themselves the sole stewards of the prehistoric lands and life forms of the Western Hemisphere, are known to Anthropology as Paleoindians.

Paleoindian Material Culture is fairly simple, consisting of stone, bone and wood tools and utensils, leather goods, the domestic dog and the ability to make and manipulate fire. This list is attested by stone and bone tools, found by archaeologists on the fringes of the Bering sea, along with fire hearths, leather-working tools and remains of domestic dogs (19**). Nonetheless, archaeological evidence of the mainstream Paleoindian migration is probably submerged under Bearing sea and Pacific coastal waters.

Austronesian Origens, by way of an expanded antarctic landmass, have also been proposed to explain remains in South America, found in even earlier contexts than those emerging from excavation into ancient Beringea.

IDEOLOGY

Non-Material Culture Sibero-American World View Shamans and Shamanism Maya World-View The Human Body Digits Peoples Spirits Orderly Spirits Disorderly Spirits Chaotic Spirits Rituals Ritual Speech

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Paleoindian Ideology and Nonmaterial Culture can be outlined by comparative study of traditional societies on both sides of the Bering Strait. Its broad outline recurs, with minor variations, throughout both American Indian and Siberian cultures. The material and ideological complex discernable in the archaeological, ethnohistorical and ethnographic records provides the basis for constituting a common Sibero-American cultural tradition. This tradition is found in various forms throughout Siberian and American Indian societies at the time of European contact and it persists in varying forms among many native peoples in both regions today (Eliade 1964, Hultkrantz 1979, Greider 1982). One of the nonmaterial cultural features which Paleoindians brought across the Bering land bridge from Asia is a complex and very specific world-view (Eliade 1964:288-336).

Some of the spirits animating this universe are orderly predictable and generally beneficent, some are morally neutral and disinterested in humans, some are disorderly and dangerous, a few of these spirits are chaotic, unpredictable and generally malevolent.

Shamans are those individuals who through accident of birth, initiation, dreams, illness and cure unite the distinct worlds of the universe within themselves. Shamans are therefore well placed to identify or manipulate the effects which events in other worlds may have upon the human community and vice versa. This placement entails curing, divination, spirit possession and other ritual activities designed to identify disturbances and restore harmony among the distinct parts and inhabitants of the universe (Eliade 1964).

MAYA WORLDVIEW

The Human Body is integrated into the Maya universe through the spacial, temporal and social associations indexed on its various parts and divisions. The correctly oriented human body faces u yal k'in, 'the birth of sun', east, as indicated by the similarity between the Yucatec Maya terms Noh 'Right' and Noh-ol 'South'.

FRONT/REAR-EAST/WEST-FUTURE/PAST RIGHT/LEFT-SOUTH/NORTH-MALE/FEMALE

FRONT/REAR-EAST/WEST-FUTURE/PAST RIGHT/LEFT-SOUTH/NORTH-MALE/FEMALE

GOOD/BAD FLESHY/BONY

GOOD/BAD FLESHY/BONY

Qualitative aspects of the blood, lightning, fire, water, poison, honey, breath, animal, etc., vary from group to group and individual to individual.

Digits are further employed to index Maya social relationships. All important blood relatives, and by extension all social relationships, are ranked by age on digits of the hands and feet. For example, among the Quiche Maya:

Thumbs and big toes Nima Kak'ab "Big Digit", represent great grandparents (50-).
The first digits, Nabe Al-ku al-axel "First Child", represent grandparents (30-50?).
The second digits, Kabe Al-ku al-axel "Second Child", represent parents (15-30).
The third digits, Rox Al-ku al-axel "Third Child", represent children (5-15).
The fourth digits, Kah Al-ku al-axel "Fourth Child" or C'ip Kak'ab "Last Born Child", are infants (-5), (Tedlock 1982:144).

People is a term often employed in translating indigenous texts to acknowledge the sentient nature of all that is animated by spirit, eg. 'Deer People', in addition to its use as a narrative device indicating particular types of person by reference to specific animals and their characteristic behaviors. Thus, the Maya identify the human community as but one among a multitude ranging from flea people to jaguar people, tree people to stone people, water people to cloud people. Some of these peoples, such as plants, animals, birds, fish, trees, shrubs, vines, grasses and maize, are recognized as biological entities by Aryo-Semitic science. Other peoples such as fire, wind, cloud, water and stone are classified by Aryo-Semitic science as Spirits, or more erroneously as "gods and devils".

Spirits animating the Maya universe, even those which are not generally beneficent, are typically orderly and predictable. As in most other descendants of the Sibero-American ideological substrate, some spirits are percieved as benificent, some are whimsical or moody, some are neutral, others are disorderly and dangerous and a few are chaotic, unpredictable and generally malevolent.

Orderly Spirits usually consist of 'peoples' who live in magical communities which, similar to human's, are divided into fives and distributed among the four directions and the center. For example, there are five nations of cloud people, or five provinces of the nation of the cloud people, five cities of cloud people, or five districts to the city of the cloud people, or five lineages of cloud people, or five families of cloud people, or five cloud people, or just one cloud person with five limbs, or just the hand with five digits. Fives further include time periods, the holy winds, colors, flora, fauna and parts of the human individual and human community, etc.

Orderly spirits also appear as complementary pairs associated with Father Sky/Serpent yum kaan and Mother Earth/Crocodile izam kab ayin/izam kab nail/izam na kabil. Pairs include sun k'in, and moon uh, ah, light sasak, and dark ak'ab, male ah and female ix, stone tun and tree ce, fire k'ak' and water ha, hot cok, and cold siis, dry cak and moist ak', senior sukun and junior izin, right noh and left xik'in, etc. Orderly spirits may also reside in Earth like ancestral Nan-tat, Al-mehen spirits or in Sky like rain Ah Yaab and lightning Ah Nen, Ah Nen K'ab, Ah Bat, Ah Bat K'ab, Ah Kaan, Ah Kaan K'ab, Ah Lem, Ah Lem Bat, Ah Lem Kan, Ah Cak, Ah Cak Kaan.

The Christian Trinity is incorporated into the orderly spirits as the Chief Sky Spirit Nohoc Yum Kan, while the Virgin Mary is incorporated as both Holy Moon K'uil U and Fertile Earth Nohoc Kolel. Orderly spirits, as sentient and communal 'peoples', are generally both influential and amenable to requests for assistance from the incarnate living. A great deal of ritual activity is devoted to identifying and servicing the needs of orderly spirits.

Disorderly Spirits, known as Ah luxob, u k'uil kaxob, reside in Earth or Sky, causing and feeding on sickness, discord and death (Redfield and Villa Rojas 1934). Disorderly spirits are generally less influential than orderly spirits, though still amenable to bribes and threats from the incarnate living. Some ritual activity is devoted to identifying and servicing the needs of disorderly spirits, although most practitioners cast out such spirits as a matter of course.

Chaotic spirits, known as k'asal ik'ob "evil winds/emanations" penetrate the various levels and divisions of the universe. Some of these enter the Human, Earth or Sky dimensions from beyond, others are raised, summoned, emanated or generated by the ill will of the incarnate living. Without fixed form, abode, purpose or character, these chaotic spirits acumulate, wreak havoc, weaken, sicken and destroy the incarnate living. Left unchecked these forces will ultimately destroy the fabric of the universe itself. Chaotic spirits are typically identified and cast out of time and space with all due haste by all but the most self-deluded practitioners of evil.

Maya Shamans, Ah K'inob, Ah Menob, traditionally operate in two distinct contexts, public service and private practice. As public servants Maya Shamans perform typical 'priestly' functions, officiating at New Year, New Fire, Planting, Harvest, War, and other annual or community rituals where prescribed dances, cleansings, prayers and offerings are employed. As private practitioners Maya Shamans perform typical 'shamanic' functions, cleansing, healing, sensing, offering and praying at various social events surrounding Birth, Name, Puberty, Betrothal, Marriage, Curing, Burial and other personal or life cycle transitions. Nonetheless, the common distinction in Aryo-semetic religious studies between 'Priest' and 'Shaman' has little validity when discussing Maya 'priest/shamans' (Tedlock 1982:47-85).

Regardless of the specific anthropological context assigned to Maya Shamans by aryan scholars, much of their time was and is devoted to ferocious spiritual struggles with rival shamans and their familiar spirits. Specific approaches to particlular tactical problems are outlined in a Colonial Maya text written in Spanish script and identified by Aryan scholars as 'The Ritual of the Bacabs'. The "Ritual" identifies illness as a result of objects, animals and birds planted in the patient's spirit body by the hostile will of an animal, another person, an evil spirit or a payed witch (Tedlock 1982, etc.).

Ritual Speech including prayer is believed effective in swaying the holy ancestors and the spirits. Also, many words, phrases, prayers and particularly the names of the Sacred Calendar, are considered so potent that, regardless of content, they inspire the spirit realm simply by correct vocalization.

MESOAMERICAN TRADITIONS

Mesoamerica Mesoamerican Cultural Traditions Zapotec Olmec Tuxtla Izapa Maya

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MESOAMERICA

Trait Lists of elements common to Mesoamerican cultures have been made previously (Kroeber 1939, Kirchhoff 1943; Gossen 1986). The most common and uniquely Mesoamerican cultural traits found on these lists include:

1. A vigesimal (base 20) number system.
2. A calendar consisting of a 260-day ritual cycle composed of 13 months of 20 days, and a 365-day annual cycle composed of 18 'months' of 20 days and 1 period of 5 days.
3. A conception of a spiritual universe as superposed Sky, Earthly and Water/Underworld dimensions, with each dimension further composed of East, North, West, South, and Center.
4. Social eminence as a reflection of the ability to mediate among the disparate parts of the natural and spiritual universe and to assemble and distribute largesse to the broader community in the appropriate times and ways.
5. Complementary dualism as the primary model for human behavior.
6. Speech, Writing and Signing as manifestations of the spiritual substance of the communicants.

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MESOAMERICAN CULTURAL TRADITIONS

It is also often asserted that one of these cultural traditions is the hearth of all the unique features of Mesoamerica. This notion lies at the heart of a bitterly contested academic debate in which each civilization has its advocates. Yet, all indications suggest that the earliest of these traditions, the Olmec, Zapotec and Maya, actually developed contemporaneously rather than in hierarchic succession. Because various Mesoamerican groups interacted with the Maya (and their writing system) to some degree, brief outlines of these cultures are presented here.

MAYA

Maya Writing consists of glyphs arranged in columns which are read in pairs from top to bottom and from left to right. Maya glyphs are drawings which depict symbolic forms, human portraits and body parts, animal portraits and body parts, plants and plant parts as well as a variety of artifacts.

Maya Glyphs tend to be uniform in width and height throughout a single text and to have rectilinear outlines with rounded corners. In addition to this classic type there are, parabolic, rectilinear and eccentric glyph outlines, depending on the period and site where the text originated.

William Gates, Gunther Zimmerman and J.E.S. Thompson have all published catalogs of Maya Glyphs (Gates 1931, Thompson 1962, Zimmerman 1956).

THE MAYA AREA

The Maya Area; Divisions of the Maya Area; Pacific Coast; Piedmont; Southern Highlands; Northern Highlands; Southern Lowlands; Northern Lowlands.

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Divisions of the Maya Area are primarily defined by altitude, climate and rainfall. Tropical climate exists from sea level to about 260', Temperate climate from about 260' to about 666' and Cool climate prevails from 666' on. The cool mountainous portions of the Maya area lie to the south while the hot low lying areas extend to the north. Rainfall is somewhat differently distributed, with the densest precipitation along the northern and southern foothills of the mountainous highlands and the least rain falling on the mountains themselves and on the northernmost portions of the lowlands. According to this schema the Maya area is composed of six subareas, the Coastal Plain, the Pacific Piedmont, the Southern Highlands, the Northern Highlands, the Southern Lowlands and the Northern Lowlands. Table 1 compares this scheme with three other schema.

The Coastal Plain is a relatively narrow band of very fertile volcanic alluvium, with sandy beaches at sea level along the pacific coast and numerous rivers running south from the Piedmont at about 260' above sea level. The climate is humid tropical with mangrove swamps formerly lining the coast and dense jungle formerly covering the interior. Rainfall is moderate to heavy.

The Pacific Piedmont is a narrow band of fertile volcanic foothills, with volcanic boulders strewn across the landscape. Numerous rivers and streams run south from the highlands at about 260' to 666' above sea level. The climate is a moist temperate transitional zone between the humid tropics below and the dry highlands above. Rainfall is moderate.

The Southern Highlands is a broad region of live volcanos, igneous stone and deep deposits of ash averaging about 666' and running to 1200' above sea level. The region is cut by three major river systems, the rivers running south to the Pacific Ocean, the Rio Usumacinta running north to the Gulf of Mexico and the Rio Motagua running east to the Caribbean Sea. The climate is cool with oaks and other deciduous vegetation as well as pine and other evergreens. Rainfall is moderate to light and the southern portion has one of the few genuine deserts in the Maya area.

The Northern Highlands is a relatively broad region of tectonic upthrust averaging about 666' above sea level. The region consists mostly of limestone karst formations with pockets of sandstone and other sedimentary stones. The region is honeycombed with extensive networks of minimally explored caves and underground rivers. The climate is a moist temperate transitional zone between the humid tropics below and the dry highlands above. Rainfall is moderate to heavy.

The Southern Lowlands is a broad region consisting mostly of low lying limestone karst formations not more than 260' above sea level. Pockets of other sedimentary stones also occur in this region. The region has few rivers or underground reservoirs although a series of fresh water lakes and some rivers occur in the eastern half. The climate is humid tropical with dense jungle and climax rainforest. Rainfall is moderate to heavy.

The Northern Lowlands, the broadest region of the Maya area, consist almost entirely of low lying limestone karst formations although pockets of other sedimentary stones occur. The region has no rivers, although a series of fresh water lakes occurs in the eastern half and sink holes provide access to extensive networks of caves and underground rivers. The climate is dry tropical with dense thorny scrub and climax rainforest in portions of the eastern half. Rainfall is moderate to light and the northwest portion of this region includes the second desert region in the Maya area.

NATURAL REGIONS OF THE MAYA AREA I                             II                                III                               IV _______________________________________________________________________________________

NORTHERN LOWLANDS    YUCATAN    NORTHERN LOWLANDS    NORTHERN AREA

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       PETEN       CENTRAL LOWLANDS

________________________________________SOUTHERN LOWLANDS   CENTRAL AREA

TRANSITIONAL                                   SOUTHERN LOWLANDS                               

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METAMORPHIC  NORTHERN HIGHLANDS  HIGHLANDS  NORTHERN HIGHLANDS ____________________________________________________________________________________

SOUTHERN HIGHLAND     VOLCANIC     SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS     HIGHLANDS

_____________________________________________ SOUTHERN AREA                PIEDMONT  

____________ PIEDMONT/ PACIFIC COAST     PACIFIC COAST                   PACIFIC PLAIN 

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CHRONOLOGY

Lithic ArchaicEarly PreclassicMiddle PreclassicLate PreclassicProtoclassicEarly ClassicLate ClassicTerminal ClassicEarly PostclassicLate PostclassicEarly ColonialLate ColonialNeoimperial

MAYA	GREGORIAN	ARCHAEOLOGICAL	CERAMIC	HISTORICAL
13.0.0.0.0	2012 AD			Long Count 13 Cycle Ends
12.10.0.0.0	1815 AD	Modern		Genocide in Guate. War in Ciapas Mexican Revolution 'Cast War' in Yucatan Ciapas
12.0.0.0.0	1618 AD	Late Colonial		Mexico Guate. Independence Tayasil Falls
11.10.0.0.0	1421 AD	Early Colonial Late Postclassic	Balankan Orange Ends	Invasion, war, disposession, slavery Iximce, Utatlan, Mayapan, Tulum
11.0.0.0.0	1224 AD		Plumbate Ends	New Cic'en IS Dating End New Cicen Flowers
10.10.0.0.0	1027 AD	Early Postclassic	Tohil Plumbate Balankan Orange Redware, Slateware Begin	New Cic'en Begins Seibal Terminal Classic Begins Peten Sites Abandoned
10.0.0.0.0	830 AD	Terminal Classic	Pabellon, Fine Orange Begin Tepeu 2 Ends	Initial Series Monuments End Uniform Moon Age Dates End
9.10.0.0.0	633 AD	Late Classic	Tepeu 2 Begins Tepeu 1 Ends	DB Initial Series Monumrnts End Puuk Style and Uniformity Begin
9.0.0.0.0	435 AD	Early Classic	Tepeu 1 Begins Zakol Ends	Rio Bek C'enes Styles Begin DB Initial Series Ends in Gulf
8.10.0.0.0	238 AD	Protoclassic	Zakol Begins Floral Park Ends	Rio Azul Painted Tomb Maya End at Abaj Takalik
8.0.0.0.0	41 AD		Floral Park Begins	Gulf Olmec Ends DB Initial Series Begins in Gulf
7.10.0.0.0	156/7 BC		Cikanel Ends	Maya Arrive in Gulf Kaminaljuyu Begin Period Glyphs
7.0.0.0.0	353/4 BC	Late Preclassic	Chikanel Begins Usulutan Resist Begins Mamom Ends	Abaj Takalik St. 2 DB IS Kaminaljuyu St. 10 Gulf Olmec Flowers
6.10.0.0.0	550/1 BC		Mamom Begins Xe, Eb End	Tikal Begins El Mirador Begins
6.0.0.0.0	747/8 BC			Abaj Takalik Mon. 11 South Olmec End
5.10.0.0.0	945/6 BC	Middle Preclassic	Xe, Eb, Zibilcaltun Begin Swasey Ends	DB Initial Series Begins in South Maya Arrive in Southern Area
5.0.0.0.0	1142/3 BC			Early Olmec Style Begins South Potbelly Sculpture Begins South
4.10.0.0.0	1339/10 BC			Boulder Carving Begins in South
4.0.0.0.0	1536/7 BC
3.10.0.0.0	1733/4 BC
3.0.0.0.0	1930/1 BC	Early Preclassic
2.10.0.0.0	2127/8 BC
2.0.0.0.0	2324/5 BC
1.10.0.0.0	2521/2 BC		Swasey Complex Begins
1.0.0.0.0	2718/9 BC
0.10.0.0.0	2915/6 BC			Settled Village Life
0.0.0.0.0	3112/3 BC			Long Count Begins

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERIODS

The Lithic, 20,000 or 12,000-6000 BC, Paleoindian foragers followed large game animals across Beringea to settle both the north and south American continents.

The Archaic, 6000 - 2000 BC, Paleoindian foragers making their home in Mesoamerica became settled horticulturalists, domesticating and selectively breeding an astonishing variety of vegetable foodstuffs.

The starting point of the Maya Long Count as recorded in Classic Maya Initial Series inscriptions falls in the middle of this period. Many Archaeologists believe that this date records some mythic event. Maya texts identify this date as the beginning of the current world cycle. The presiding year spirit, EB, is Yellow, residing in the South with the presiding day spirit, Kanal Ahau, which is also yellow, residing in the south.

Pacific Coast and Piedmont boulder carving begins during this period. Potbelly sculpture develops from earlier Boulder sculpture and continues to develop into Early Olmec style sculpture.

In Oaxaka Zapotec monuments with crude incised relief and brief texts appear at sites such as San Jose Mogote and Monte Alban.

In the Gulf Coast Region Mature Olmec style reaches its fullest development at sites such as La Venta, San Lorenzo and Laguna de los Cerros.

In the Piedmont, Olmec sculptural development abruptly ceased, replaced by diverse styles of Maya sculpture and glyphic inscriptions at sites such as Abaj Takalik.

In the Southern Highlands diverse Maya style sculptures and glyphic inscriptions are created at sites such as El Porton and Kaminaljuyu.

In the Gulf Coast Region, Olmec style sculpture ceases abruptly only to be replaced by diverse styles of Maya sculpture. These Maya style sculptures bear Tuxtla style glyphic inscriptions at sites such as La Venta, Tres Zapotes and San Andres Tuxtla.

On the Pacific Coastal Plain the Izapan narrative sculpture style is developed and flourishes at the site of Izapa Also, precursors of Classic Maya style sculpture appear at Chocola and Calcuapa.

In the Piedmont, precursors of Classic Maya style sculpture and inscriptions replace more diverse early Maya prototypes at sites such as Abaj Takalik,El Baul and El Jobo with distinctive Maya paired columns appearing at El Baul and Abaj Takalik (Stela 5).

In the Southern Highlands codified Maya style sculptures and glyphic inscriptions are created at Kaminaljuyu. Stelae with Classic Maya style texts including period glyphs begin to be erected at Kaminaljuyu (Slab).

In the Northern Highlands codified Maya style sculpture and glyphic inscriptions are created at sites such as Ciapa de Corzo (Stela 2).

In the Southern Lowlands codified Maya style sculpture and glyphic inscriptions are created at sites such as El Mirador, Nakbe, Polol and Tikal.

In the Northern Lowlands codified Maya style sculpture and inscriptions are created at sites such as Loltun.

In the Gulf Coast, Non-Maya glyphic inscriptions continued to appear on Maya style sculptures at La Mojarra in the Gulf Coast region.

In the Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and Southern Highlands, few sculptures or texts are safely attributable to this period (Bagaces Mirror Back).

In the Southern Lowlands Classic Maya architecture appears for the first time. Rooms are small with solid walls of rough stone and mortar. Ax-shaped stelae are placed in alignments on plaza floors in front of buildings. Building facades are ornamented with elaborate stucco trelliswork and figural art, including huge monster-masks flanking pyramid stairways. Stelae with Classic Maya style texts begin to be erected.

On the Pacific Coast and in the Piedmont a new sculptural style, perhaps developing from the earlier narrative style of Izapa, appear in the Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa region.

In the Northern Highlands Classic Maya sculpture and glyphs begin to be carved.

In the Southern Lowlands Classic Maya architecture flourishes, with small rooms and thick walls. Ax-shaped stelae are placed in alignments on plaza floors before buildings. Facades are ornamented with stuccoed figural art, including elaborate monster-masks flanking pyramid stairways. Stelae with Classic Maya style texts including period glyphs begin to be erected at 5 year intervals in the central portion of the southern lowlands (Tikal Ballcourt Sculpture).

In the Northern Lowlands Classic Maya sculpture and glyphs become the dominant cultural expressions. The mosaic sculpture style of finely cut stones develops, duplicating Preclassic stucco facades found in the Southern Lowlands.

In the Gulf Coast, Non-Maya glyphic inscriptions with Dot-Bar Initial Series Dates degenerate into the pseudo-text on the transitional Maya to Mixteca Puebla style sculpture from Cerro de Las Mesas known as the "Stone of Capultepek".

On the Pacific Coast and in the Piedmont the narrative sculptural style of Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa reaches its peak development.

In the Northern Highlands, the last known Dot-Bar Initial Series Date is carved on a Maya style sculpture at Pestak, a suburb of the site of Tonina.

In the Southern Lowlands, both architectural construction and sculpture carving become more common and formulaic. Rooms are small with thick masonry walls. Ax-shaped stelae are placed in alignments on plaza floors in front of buildings. Stelae are erected at 5 year intervals. Nonetheless, at Palenque and other Usumasinta sites, carved stone lintels, wall panels, shrines and thrones are more common than stela-altar complexes.

In the Northern Lowlands new architectural forms such as quadrangles with doorway columns are developed in the Puuk region. Columns also become a new sculptural type with ornament in the round, in relief and in incision. In this region, stelae with pointed apex and distinct scenic registers are commonly placed on special platforms set away from buildings. The Mosaic Sculpture style of stone architecture evolves to represent, in finely cut stone, the features of quotidian architecture in perishable materials as found throughout the Maya area.

In the Southern Lowlands stucco building facades duplicate the features of mosaic sculpture facades found in the Northern Lowlands. Stelae with pointed apex and distinct scenic registers are placed on special platforms set away from buildings and unusual titles appear at sites such as Seibal.

In Central Mexico evidence of Maya influence begins to appear at sites such as Xocikalko, Kakaxtla and Tula, which effectively surround the weakened and declining Central Mexican site of Teotihuacan.

In the Northern Lowlands new architectural forms appear. These consist of colonnaded halls, recessed jambs and lintels in interior doorways, basal batters on external walls as well as columns and stairway borders in the form of serpents with the heads at either the top or the bottom. The large interior spaces of many of these structures are certainly designed to accommodate large indoor assemblies.

No stelae or Classic Maya glyphic texts carved during this phase of Cic'en Iz'a's development have been found. Instead, many of the hundreds of columns at the site are carved with depictions of individual warriors, each accompanied by a caption consisting of a single eccentric glyph. The predominance of scenes depicting warriors on these structures further suggests a greater participation of this group in general counsels of this time.

In Central Mexico evidence of Maya influence continues at sites such as Xocikalko, Kakaxtla and Tula, while the Central Mexican site of Teotihuacan, now all but abandoned, falls into ruin and decay.

In the Southern Highlands the Kice Maya of Kumal kah become the most powerful of the local city-states, persisting until the Aryan invasion.

In the Northern Lowlands the walled city of Mayapan, a pale and shoddily constructed miniature reproduction of Cic'en Iz'a, maintains a tenuous grip on central Yucatan through hostage taking and terror.

Remarkably, the practice of erecting carved stelae on special platforms at calendric intervals is revived at Mayapan Also, at Mayapan the Paris Screenfold is created. Paris pages 1-12 almost certainly document Mayapan k'atun history.

Ultimately, Mayapan is destroyed through an act of treachery, reportedly involving the kidnap of a woman, and the Northern Lowlands fall into a state of near anarchy for a time.

Toward the end of the Late Postclassic, the various warring groups Yucatan coalesce into two loosely aligned and mutually hostile camps. These two camps are lead by the Non-Classic Xiu-ob, "grasses", in the west and the Traditionalist Iz'ah-ob, "Sorcerers/Shamans", in the east.

In Central Mexico the Maya-Mexican synthesis apparent at sites such as Xocikalko, Kakaxtla and Tula is adopted by a new Mayanized Mexican group, the Astek, who model their capital Tenoctitlan after Tula, and through Tula the great Maya capitol of Cic'en Iz'a.

1502, Maya traders on the way from Yucatan to Honduras encounter an Aryan expeditionary force, under Cristobal Colon, far from land.

Of course Moktesuma himself is killed by the Hispano-Aryan soldiers who sieze him at what should have been his final opportunity to crush the invaders from ambush. In the minds of these invaders, once the 'King' was captured the chess game was over, now it was just a matter of 'mop-up' and 'bush-war'. Because Moktesuma had betrayed his own people and no one could now trust him, he would be far easier to manage dead. Subsequently, the surviving Aztec political leadership is clapped in chains and hauled deep into the jungles of the Peten where they can be murdered at leasure and without unauthorized witnesses.

The Maya rearguard in the highlands of Chiapas and Guatemala soon share the bitter fruits of Moktesuma's craven cowardice. In the Southern Highlands Pedro de Alvarado, Cortez' favored lieutenant and a stereotypical pretty-boy sadist, levels the sacred centers of the various Maya and Nahua groups in quick succession. Eventually, Alvarado gets his at the point of a lance in battle in Chiapas on the western frontier of the Northern Maya Highlands. The capital Alvarado founds is subsequently destroyed by Earth, a historical fact which the Indians of the region take a certain satisfaction in recounting even today.

To preserve highland Maya history and culture, epics including the "Annals of the kak'cikels", (Recinos) the "Titles of the Lords of Totonicapan", (Recinos) and the "Popol Buh", (Recinos, Edmonson, Tedlock) are composed along with the dance drama of the "Rabinal Achi".

In the Southern Lowlands the Madrid Screenfold is created at Peten Iz'ah, depicting a Spanish sword and a statue of the horse which Cortez left at Ta iz'a'-il.

In the Northern Lowlands General Montejo razes Ickanziho' and builds his capital, Merida, from the rubble with Maya slave labor. In 1549 Diego de Landa arrives in Yucatan. He sets up his base of operations in the ruins of the great Maya site of Iz'a' Mul, famous for its large center temple mound. During this period the colonial manuscript known as the "Ritual of the Bakabs" is created to preserve traditional Maya curing ceremonies in the new alphabetic script imposed by Spanish Catholic religious.

In the Northern Lowlands collections of history, myth, ritual and prophesy known as "Books of Cilam Balam" and others such as the "Cantares of Zitbalce" are composed in Yucatec Maya, recorded in the Spanish alphabetic script. One of these books even records the Maya scribe's colonial version of the 19 month glyphs.

The Neoimperial, 1821-, following the example of the Anglo-American imperialists, Mexico declares independence. The 'Indian Problem', Indians constituting the vast majority of the population of the former New Spain, is resolved in a most ingenious fashion. All Indian peoples are made 'Mexican' by decree and because no 'Indians' now exist their ancestral lands can be 'legally' divided among the newly independent Hispano-Aryan invaders with a clean conscience. Thus a new round of murder, theft, exploitation and repression by foreign overlords begins for the Maya and the rest of the newly minted 'Mexicans', (Jennings 1993). For Many of these newly impoverished and disposessed people this is the real beginning of the Time of Slavery, (Reed 1964). Throughout the cities, towns, fertile fields and forest gardens of the Western Hemisphere, its proud, industrious inhabitants are similarly transfomed into the landless, indentured, servile, uncultured, unintelligent, untouchable which Aryan cast structures require them to be, (Unruh 1979).

In 1839 John Lloyd Stephens, the American consul to the ephemeral Confederation of Central American States, tours the Southern Maya region with Frederick Catherwood, expedition artist. Stephens, the "Father of Maya Archaeology", has nothing but contempt for Rafael Carrera the Indigenist leader of the Guatemalan independence movement, calling him "an ignorant, uneducated Indian boy" and expressing his racist fears of indigenous self-government, (Stephens 1949:245). Given his position, it is a shame that Sephens embraced the genocidal racism which characterizes Aryan governmental interactions, from inception to the present, with American Indians of any kind, ( Indian Removal).

On July 26, 1847 Manuel Antonio Ay, San. Ton to the Maya, is sacrificed by the Hispano-Aryans in a public plaza of Sakil. the White City, Valladolid, Yucatan, before a hushed throng of his devoted followers, assembled there to witness his martyrdom.

On July 30, 1847 the Maya of Yucatan attack the town of Te-pic, inaugurating what the Aryan invaders still identify as the 'Cast War' in Yucatan. The modern Maya simply refer to this as 'the time of war', as distinct from the previous period, 'the time of slavery'.

May 5, 1850 The State of The Cross is formally declared at Xoken igniting one of the most important Indigenist movements of the early Neoimperial period. In 1858 the Balam Na is begun at the sacred center of CanSanta Crus, establishing that settlement as the capital of a fully independent modern Maya nation state.

On January 11 1884, a peace treaty between the Yucatec (Aryanist) and Crusob (Mayanist) states was signed at Belize under the patronage of the English Emperor. On July 8 1893, the Spenser-Mariscal Treaty establishing boundaries between English and Mexican imperial posessions in the Yukatan Peninsula was signed by representatives of the two autarchs. This treaty was and is illegal under treaty and international law because both the English Crown and the Mexican Dictator were fully aware that the treaty was an attempt by the English to ceed sovereign territory, of a formally recognized treaty partner, to the Mexican empire. Indeed, no foreign power had ever previously taken, held or governed the lands and peoples of The State of The Cross.

In June of 1895 the Yucatecan State government also ratifies the illegal Spenser-Mariscal treaty, again in violation of several treaties made with the Maya state, at least one of which was guaranteed by the English Emperor!

Until 1901, when general Ignacio Bravo rides into CanSanta Crus at the head of a column of invading Mexican troops, the Maya people of the eastern Yucatan peninsula remain apart from Mexico and the other centers of Aryan Imperialism in the Western Hemisphere. Throughout the duration of this 'Cast War', the Anglo-Aryan powers in Washington and many private citizens of the USA actively support the Hispano-Aryan's efforts to exterminate the fully Independent Maya nation, (Reed 1964).

On November 24 1902 the Mexican empire renames the newly aquired lands of The State of The Cross as, 'The Federal Territory of Quintana Roo'.

In 1915, the Mexican troops withdraw from Can Santa Crus as a war of insurgency breaks out and Mexico descends into chaos. Nonetheless, the insurrection is seen by many as an opportunity for a complete restructuring of Mexican society. Subsequently the Indigenist leaders of the revolution, such as Emillano Zapata, are murdered and the Hispanic leaders are bought off, again directed by Neoimperialist powers in Washington. Minimal land reforms are instituted, and lip service to the principle of Indigenous rights becomes a staple of Mexican political campaigns. Regardless, Indians remain little better than serfs at the bottom of Mexico's anglophilic neoimperial social, political, religious and economic hierarchies. Indeed, the true purpose and result of both Mexico and Guatemala as states, is the transformation of free Indian farmers into indebted Latino labor.

In 1954, American president Dwight D. Eisenhower, in a cowardly effort to placate the drunken witch-hunting 'anticommunist' senator Joseph McCarthy, sends the CIA to overthrow the popularly elected reformist government of Guatemalan president Jacobo Arbenz. Arbenz is permitted to live, but spends the remainder of his days watching the horror in Guatemala unfold from exile in Mexico City. Thousands of Arbenz' supporters are tortured and murdered by a self perpetuating and technologically sophisticated military terror organization created, trained and shielded by criminal shadow organizations like the CIA as well as by the executive branch of Anglo-Aryan Imperialism in Washington.

During the early 1980's at least 100,000 Guatemalans, mostly ethnic Maya, are murdered or driven from the country by Guatemalan military terror in a scorched earth campaign against grassroots democracy. The Anglo-Aryan government under Ronald Reagan & George Bush secures American and Israeli arms, advisors, money and propaganda aid for the Guatemalan terror organization, again under the pretext of 'anticommunism'. This organization, which has already consumed hundreds of thousands of human lives continues to immolate Indigenist Guatemalans and potential grassroots leaders every day in a continuation and expansion of terror programs which the USA government first tried, unsuccessfully, in Vietnam. The systems of controll are remarkaby similar to the original Hispano-Catholic methods. Confiscate wealth, Concentrate population, Terrorize individuals, Convert or kill the influencial, Exploit the powerless. One of the most unusual instruments for these crimes against humanity is a fake evangelical organization based in California which actually recruits and motivates local killers including the 'Coup leader', General Rios Mont for the active cycle of the culling operation.

On January 1, 1994, the Zapatista revolt begin in Ciapas, Mexico, revealing widespread discontent with the cynicism and naked greed of the heirs to the failed 1915 Mexican revolution. Subsequently, Mexican military, trained with US taxes at the Anglo-Aryan terror schools in the USA, begins to apply their training to local indigenous leaders and supporters of human rights. The results are, yet again, predictably like the results of 'Operation Phoenix' in Vietnam - ever widening circles of angry, alienated and increasingly radicalized people.

Peace talks continue between the Zapatista Indigenists and factions of the Aryan Imperialists headquartered in Mexico City. Yet, corruption is the very heart of Aryan Empire building and to excise such a cancer is to kill the patient. At the same time the insurgents cannot disarm until the Aryan powers root out corruption. The two armies are locked in a classic Mexican standoff where whoever sheds blood first looses both the public and the war. This unsatisfactory and unstable situation, and many others like it, continues and is likely to continue untill We The People find a way to remoove those who subscribe to Aryo-Semitic Imperialism forever from our own public payroll.

Further, it has become clear that the Anglo-Aryan Government in Washington has latched onto 'the drug war', in reality the most lucrative witch-hunt of all time, as its new, post-communist, pretext for violating human rights at home and abroad. Indeed, Washington is even now arming and training the Mexican Military, like the Guatemalan Military before them, for a violent coup, in the event that its clients in the Mexican government ever permit themselves to be voted from power by a candidate or party who actually represents the various peoples held in thrall by the Hispano-Aryan ruling class in Mexico City. (Vicente Fox is not that candidate, the Party of National Action is not that party.) At the same time, we are presented with the ironic spectacle of a PRI which can only survive if it revives and enacts the Indigenist platform which originally brought these thugs to power so many stolen lives ago.

At the same time as the political and military situation in Mexico is deteriorating, the Aryan overlords in Guatemala are gradually transforming the visible forms of their absolute grip on Guatemalan society. Even beginning show negotiations with Guatemalan freedom fighters. It will be interesting to see the new faces which this Hispano-Aryan slave-holding class presents for foreign consumption.

Indeed, the ciminals in the US government continue to lead the way in this new public relations effort, by changing the name but not the purpose of their torturer's school!

PROPOSITIONS REGARDING THE FUTURE

1. That all politics in 'Latin' America is tainted by initiatives from the Anglo-Aryan High Command.
2. That this group bases all its decisions about 'Latin' America on absolute controll of the Panama Canal and the Panamerican Highway, the two most important artifacts of Aryan military controll and economic domination in the Western Hemisphere.
3. That Maya lands straddle The Highway and lie between The Canal and the US border. That these simple geographic facts render Maya independance, nationhood, even regional or cultural autonomy, all intolerable threats to those who seek to maintain the controll and domination of the Aryo-semitic colonies over enslaved peoples and lands throughout the western hemisphere.
4. That the Maya constitute too large a colonized population to ignore and therefore their leadership is being systematically 'culled', first in El Salvador and Guatemala and most recently in Chiapas, Mexico.
5. That the basic human and cultural rights of the Maya people will continue to be violently suppressed from Washington by the Pentagon, the Southern Command and Aryo-semitic Neocolonialism.
6. That the increasing supression of indigenous, and other, rights is part and parcel of the USA ruling elite's nature as an agent of economic and spiritual imperialism bent on subjecting every one and every thing to their cruel domination and perverted ideology.
7. That war against resurgent indigenous nations, on its own terms, is intolerable to most modern Americans and Europeans. Therefore pretexts are required. Religion, Civilization, Democracy, Sobriety, Security, all nothing more than the historical succession of battle cries, fabricated by men who never hear a shot fired in anger, yet who never fail to profit from the death and destruction which their lies and manipulations visit upon others.